Working Draft:
Glossary of terms used in software testing
Version 6.3
produced by the British Computer
Society
Specialist Interest Group in Software Testing (BCS SIGIST)
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Contents
- Introduction
- Scope
- Arrangement
- Normative references
- Definitions
Annexes
A Index of sources
B
Document details
Foreword
In compiling this glossary the committee has sought the views and comments of
as broad a spectrum of opinion as possible in industry, commerce and government
bodies and organisations, with the aim of producing a standard which would gain
acceptance in as wide a field as possible
. Totalagreement will rarely, if ever, be achieved in
compiling a document of this nature.
1. Introduction
Much time and effort is wasted both within and between industry, commerce,
government and professional and academic institutions when ambiguities arise as
a result of the inability to differentiate adequately between such terms as
`path coverage' and `branch coverage'; `test case suite', `test specification'
and `test plan' and similar terms which form an interface between various
sectors and society
. Moreover, the
professional, or technical use of these terms is often at
variance with the meanings attributed to them by lay people.
2. Scope
This document presents concepts, terms and definitions designed to aid
communication in software testing and related disciplines.
3. Arrangement
The glossary has been arranged in a single section of definitions arranged
alphabetically
. The use of a term defined within this
glossary is printed in italics.
Some terms are preferred to other synonymous ones, in which case, the
definition of the preferred term appears, with the synonymous ones referring to
that
. For example
dirty testing refers to
negative testing.
4. Normative references
At the time of publication, the edition indicated was valid
. All standards are subject to revision, and parties to
agreements based upon this Standard are encouraged to investigate the
possibility of applying the most recent edition of the standards listed
below
. Members of IEC and ISO maintain registers of
currently valid International Standards.
ISO 8402:1986
. Quality Vocabulary.
ISO/IEC 2382-1:1993
. Data processing - Vocabulary
- Part 01:Fundamental
terms.
BS 6154:1981
. Method of defining Syntactic Metalanguage.
5. Definitions
5.1acceptance testing: Formal
testing conducted to enable a user, customer, or other
authorized entity to determine whether to accept a system or
component. [IEEE]
5.2actual
outcome: The
behaviour actually produced when the
object is tested under specified conditions.
5.3 ad hoc testing: Testing carried out
using no recognised
test case design
technique.
5.4 alpha testing: Simulated or actual operational
testing at an in-house site not otherwise involved with the
software developers.
5.5 arc testing: See
branch testing.
5.6 Backus-Naur form: A
metalanguage used to
formally describe the syntax of a language
. See BS
6154.
5.7 basic block: A sequence of one or more consecutive,
executable statements containing no
branches.
5.8 basis test set: A set of
test cases
derived from the code logic which ensure that 100\% branch
coverage is achieved.
5.9 bebugging: See
error seeding. [Abbott]
5.10 behaviour: The combination of
input values and
preconditions and the required response for a function
of a system
. The full
specification of a function would normally comprise
one or more
behaviours.
5.11 beta testing: Operational testing
at a site not otherwise involved with the software developers.
5.12 big-bang testing: Integration
testing where no
incremental testing takes
place prior to all the system's
components being
combined to form the system.
5.13 black box testing: See
functional test
case design.
5.14 bottom-up testing: An approach to
integration testing where the lowest level
components are tested first, then used to facilitate the
testing of higher level
components
. The process is
repeated until the
component at the top of the
hierarchy is tested.
5.15 boundary value: An
input value or
output value
which is on the boundary between
equivalence
classes, or an incremental distance either side of the boundary.
5.16 boundary value analysis: A
test case design technique for a
component in which
test cases are
designed which include representatives of
boundary
values.
5.17 boundary value coverage: The percentage of
boundary values of the component's
equivalence classes which have been
exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.18 boundary value testing: See
boundary
value analysis.
5.19 branch: A conditional transfer of control from
any
statement to any other
statement in a
component, or an
unconditional transfer of control from any
statement to
any other
statement in the
component except the next
statement, or when a
component
has more than one
entry point, a transfer of control
to an entry point of the
component.
5.20 branch condition: See
decision
condition.
5.21 branch condition combination coverage: The percentage of
combinations of all branch condition outcomes in every
decision that have been
exercised
by a
test case suite.
5.22 branch condition combination testing:
A
test case design technique in which
test cases are designed to execute combinations of branch
condition outcomes.
5.23 branch condition coverage: The
percentage of branch condition outcomes in every
decision that have been exercised by a
test case suite.
5.24 branch condition testing: A
test case
design technique in which
test cases are designed to
execute branch condition outcomes.
5.25 branch coverage: The percentage of
branches that have been
exercised by
a
test case suite
5.26 branch outcome: See
decision outcome.
5.27 branch point: See
decision.
5.28 branch testing: A test case design technique for a
component in which
test cases are
designed to execute
branch outcomes.
5.29 bug: See
fault.
5.30 bug seeding: See
error seeding.
5.31 C-use: See
computation
data use.
5.32 capture/playback tool: A test tool that
records test input as it is sent to the software under test
.
The input cases stored can then be used to reproduce the test at a later
time.
5.33 capture/replay tool: See
capture/playback
tool.
5.34 CAST: Acronym for computer-aided software testing.
5.35 cause-effect graph: A graphical
representation of
inputs or stimuli (causes) with their
associated
outputs (effects), which can be used to design
test cases.
5.36 cause-effect graphing: A
test case design
technique in which
test cases are designed by
consideration of
cause-effect graphs.
5.37 certification: The process of confirming that a system or
component complies with its specified requirements and is
acceptable for operational use
. From [IEEE].
5.38 Chow's coverage metrics: See
N-switch
coverage. [Chow]
5.39 code coverage: An analysis method that determines which parts of
the software have been executed (covered) by the
test
case suite and which parts have not been executed and therefore may require
additional attention.
5.40 code-based testing: Designing tests based on objectives derived
from the implementation (e.g., tests that execute specific
control flow paths or use specific data items).
5.41 compatibility testing: Testing whether the
system is compatible with other systems with which it should communicate.
5.42 complete path testing: See
exhaustive
testing.
5.43 component: A
minimal software item for which a separate
specification is available.
5.44 component testing: The
testing of individual software
components. After [IEEE].
5.45 computation data
use: A
data use not in a
condition. Also called C-use.
5.46 condition: A Boolean expression containing
no Boolean operators
. For instance
, A<B is a
condition but
A and
B is not
. [DO-178B]
5.47 condition coverage: See
branch
condition coverage.
5.48 condition outcome: The evaluation of
a
condition to TRUE or FALSE.
5.49 conformance criterion: Some method of judging whether or not the
component's action on a particular
specified input value conforms to the
specification.
5.50 conformance testing: The process of
testing that an implementation conforms to the
specification on which it is based.
5.51 control flow: An abstract representation
of all possible sequences of events in a program's execution
.
5.52 control flow graph: The diagrammatic representation of the
possible alternative
control flow paths through a
component.
5.53 control flow
path: See
path.
5.54 conversion testing: Testing of programs or
procedures used to convert data from existing systems for use in replacement
systems.
5.55 correctness: The degree
to which software conforms to its specification.
5.56 coverage:
The degree, expressed as a percentage, to which a specified
coverage item has been
exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.57 coverage item: An entity or property
used as a basis for
testing.
5.58 data definition: An
executable statement where a variable is assigned a
value
.
5.59 data definition C-use coverage: The
percentage of
data definition C-use pairs in
a component that are exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.60 data definition C-use pair: A
data definition and
computation
data use, where the
data use uses the value defined
in the
data definition.
5.61 data definition P-use coverage: The
percentage of
data definition P-use pairs in
a component that are exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.62 data definition P-use pair: A
data definition and
predicate data
use, where the
data use uses the value defined in the
data definition.
5.63 data definition-use coverage: The
percentage of
data definition-use pairs in
a component that are exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.64 data definition-use pair: A
data definition and
data use, where
the
data use uses the value defined in the
data definition.
5.65 data definition-use testing: A
test case
design technique for a
component in which
test cases are designed to execute
data definition-use pairs.
5.66 data flow coverage: Test coverage
measure based on variable usage within the code
.
Examples are
data definition-use coverage,
data definition P-use coverage,
data definition C-use coverage, etc.
5.67 data flow testing: Testing in which
test cases are designed based on variable usage within the
code.
5.68 data use: An
executable
statement where the value of a variable is accessed
.
5.69 debugging: The process of finding and removing the causes of
failures in software.
5.70 decision: A program
point at which the
control flow has two or more
alternative routes.
5.71 Decision condition: A
condition within a
decision.
5.72 decision coverage: The percentage of
decision outcomes that have been
exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.73 decision outcome: The result of a
decision (which therefore determines the
control flow alternative taken).
5.74 design-based testing: Designing tests based on objectives derived
from the architectural or detail design of the software (e.g., tests that
execute specific invocation paths or probe the worst case behaviour of
algorithms).
5.75 desk checking: The
testing of software by
the manual
simulation of its execution.
5.76 dirty testing: See
negative testing. [
Beizer]
5.77 documentation testing: Testing concerned
with the accuracy of documentation.
5.78 domain: The set from which values are selected.
5.79 domain testing: See
equivalence
partition testing.
5.80 dynamic analysis: The process of evaluating a system or
component based upon its
behaviour during execution
.
[IEEE]
5.81 emulator: A device, computer program, or system that accepts the
same
inputs and produces the same
outputs as a given system
. [
IEEE,do178b]
5.82 entry point: The first
executable statement within a
component.
5.83 equivalence class: A portion of the
component's
input or
output domains for which the
component's behaviour is assumed to be the same from the
component's specification.
5.84 equivalence partition: See
equivalence class.
5.85 equivalence partition coverage: The percentage of
equivalence classes generated for the
component, which have been
exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.86 equivalence partition testing:
A
test case design technique for a
component in which
test cases are
designed to execute representatives from
equivalence
classes.
5.87 error: A human action that produces an
incorrect result
. [IEEE]
5.88 error guessing: A
test case design
technique where the experience of the tester is used to postulate what
faults might occur, and to design tests specifically to expose
them.
5.89 error seeding: The process of
intentionally adding known
faults to those already in a
computer program for the purpose of monitoring the rate of detection and
removal, and estimating the number of
faults remaining in
the program
. [IEEE]
5.90 executable statement: A
statement which, when compiled, is translated into object
code, which will be executed procedurally when the program is running and may
perform an action on program data.
5.91 exercised: A program element is
exercised by a
test case when the
input value causes the execution of that element, such
as a
statement,
branch, or other
structural element.
5.92 exhaustive testing: A
test case design technique in which the
test case suite comprises all combinations of
input values and
preconditions for
component
variables.
5.93 exit point: The last
executable statement within a
component.
5.94 expected outcome: See
predicted outcome.
5.95 facility testing: See
functional test
case design.
5.96 failure: Deviation of the software from its
expected delivery or service
. [Fenton]
5.97 fault: A manifestation of an
error in software
. A
fault, if encountered may cause a
failure. [
do178b]
5.98 feasible path: A path for which there exists a set of
input values and execution conditions which causes it to
be executed.
5.99 feature testing: See
functional test
case design.
5.100 functional specification: The document that describes in detail
the characteristics of the product with regard to its intended capability
. [BS 4778,
Part2]
5.101 functional test case design: Test case selection that is based on an analysis of the
specification of the
component without reference to its internal workings.
5.102 glass box testing: See
structural
test case design.
5.103 incremental testing: Integration testing where system
components
are integrated into
the system one at a time until the entire system is integrated.
5.104 independence: Separation of responsibilities which ensures the
accomplishment of objective evaluation
. After [do178b].
5.105 infeasible path: A
path which cannot be
exercised by any
set of possible
input values.
5.106 input: A variable (whether stored within a
component or outside it) that is read by the
component.
5.107 input domain: The set of all possible
inputs.
5.108 input value: An instance of an
input.
5.109 inspection: A group
review quality improvement process for written material
. It consists of two aspects; product (document itself)
improvement and process improvement (of both document production and
inspection)
. After [Graham]
5.110 installability testing: Testing concerned
with the installation procedures for the system.
5.111 instrumentation:
The insertion of additional code into the program in order to collect
information about program behaviour during program
execution.
5.112 instrumenter: A software tool used to
carry out
instrumentation.
5.113 integration: The
process of combining components into larger
assemblies.
5.114 integration testing: Testing performed to expose
faults in
the interfaces and in the interaction between integrated
components.
5.115 interface testing: Integration
testing where the interfaces between system
components are tested.
5.116 isolation testing: Component testing
of individual
components in isolation from
surrounding
components, with surrounding
components being simulated by
stubs.
5.117 LCSAJ: A Linear Code Sequence And Jump,
consisting of the following three items (conventionally identified by line
numbers in a source code listing): the start of the linear sequence of
executable statements, the end of the linear sequence,
and the target line to which
control flow is
transferred at the end of the linear sequence.
5.118 LCSAJ coverage: The percentage of
LCSAJs of a
component which are
exercised by
a
test case suite.
5.119 LCSAJ testing: A
test case design
technique for a
component in which
test cases are designed to execute
LCSAJs.
5.120 logic-coverage testing: See
structural test case design. [Myers]
5.121 logic-driven testing: See
structural test case design.
5.122 maintainability testing: Testing whether the system meets its specified objectives
for maintainability.
5.123 modified condition/decision coverage: The percentage of all
branch condition outcomes that independently affect a
decision outcome that have been exercised by a test
case suite.
5.124 modified condition/decision testing: A
test case design technique in which
test cases are designed to execute branch condition
outcomes that independently affect a
decision
outcome.
5.125 multiple condition coverage: See
branch condition combination coverage.
5.126 mutation analysis: A method to determine
test case suite thoroughness by measuring the extent
to which a
test case suite can discriminate the
program from slight variants (mutants) of the program
.
See also
error seeding.
5.127 N-switch coverage: The percentage of
sequences of
N-transitions that have been
exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.128 N-switch testing: A form of
state
transition testing in which
test cases are designed
to execute all valid sequences of
N-transitions.
5.129 N-transitions: A sequence of
N+1 transitions.
5.130 negative testing: Testing aimed at showing software does not work
. [
Beizer]
5.131 non-functional requirements testing:
Testing of those requirements that do not relate to
functionality
. i.e. performance, usability, etc.
5.132 operational testing:Testing
conducted
to evaluate a system or component in its operational
environment. [IEEE]
5.133 oracle: A mechanism to produce the
predicted outcomes to compare with the
actual outcomes of the software under test
. After [
adrion]
5.134 outcome: Actual
outcome or
predicted outcome. This is the outcome of a test
. See
also
branch outcome,
condition outcome and
decision outcome.
5.135 output: A variable (whether stored within a
component or outside it) that is written to by the
component.
5.136 output domain: The set of all possible
outputs.
5.137 output value: An instance of an
output.
5.138 P-use: See
predicate data use.
5.139 partition testing: See
equivalence partition testing. [
Beizer]
5.140 path: A sequence of
executable statements of a
component, from an
entry point
to an
exit point.
5.141 path coverage: The percentage of
paths in a
component exercised by a
test case suite.
5.142 path sensitizing: Choosing a set of
input
values to force the execution of a
component to
take a given
path.
5.143 path testing: A test case design
technique in which
test cases are designed to
execute
paths of a
component.
5.144 performance testing: Testing conducted to
evaluate the compliance of a system or
component with
specified performance requirements
. [IEEE]
5.145 portability testing: Testing aimed at
demonstrating the software can be ported to specified hardware or software
platforms.
5.146 precondition: Environmental and state
conditions which must be fulfilled before the
component
can be executed with a particular
input value.
5.147 predicate: A logical expression which
evaluates to TRUE or FALSE, normally to direct the execution
path in code.
5.148 predicate data use: A
data use in a
predicate.
5.149 predicted outcome: The
behaviour predicted by the
specification of an object under specified conditions.
5.150 program instrumenter: See
instrumenter.
5.151 progressive testing: Testing of new
features after
regression testing of previous
features
. [
Beizer]
5.152 pseudo-random: A series which appears
to be random but is in fact generated according to some prearranged sequence.
5.153 recovery testing: Testing aimed at
verifying the system's ability to recover from varying degrees of
failure.
5.154 regression testing: Retesting of a
previously tested program following modification to ensure that
faults have not been introduced or uncovered as a result of
the changes made.
5.155 requirements-based testing: Designing tests based on objectives
derived from requirements for the software component (e.g., tests that exercise
specific functions or probe the non-functional constraints such as performance
or security)
. See
functional
test case design.
5.156 result: See
outcome.
5.157 review: A process or meeting during which a
work product, or set of work products, is presented to project personnel,
managers, users or other interested parties for comment or approval
. [
ieee]
5.158 security testing: Testing whether the
system meets its specified security objectives.
5.159 serviceability testing: See
maintainability testing.
5.160 simple subpath: A
subpath of
the
control flow graph in which no program part
is executed more than necessary.
5.161 simulation: The representation of
selected behavioural characteristics of one physical or abstract system by
another system
. [ISO 2382/1].
5.162 simulator: A device, computer program or system used during
software
verification, which behaves or operates
like a given system when provided with a set of controlled
inputs. [
IEEE,do178b]
5.163 source statement: See
statement.
5.164 specification: A description of a
component's function in terms of its
output values for
specified
input values under specified
preconditions.
5.165 specified input: An
input for which the
specification
predicts an
outcome.
5.166 state transition: A transition between two allowable states of a
system or
component.
5.167 state transition testing: A
test case design technique in which
test cases are designed to execute
state transitions.
5.168 statement: An
entity in a programming language which is typically the smallest indivisible
unit of execution.
5.169 statement coverage: The percentage of
executable statements in a
component that have been
exercised by a
test case
suite.
5.170 statement testing: A
test case design
technique for a
component in which
test cases are designed to execute
statements.
5.171 static analysis: Analysis of a program carried out without
executing the program.
5.172 static analyzer: A tool that carries out static analysis.
5.173 static testing: Testing of an object
without execution on a computer.
5.174 statistical testing: A test case design technique in which a model is used of
the statistical distribution of the
input to construct
representative
test cases.
5.175 storage testing: Testing whether the
system meets its specified storage objectives.
5.176 stress testing: Testing conducted to
evaluate a system or component at or beyond the limits of its specified
requirements
. [IEEE]
5.177 structural coverage: Coverage measures based
on the internal structure of the component.
5.178 structural test case design: Test case selection that
is based on an analysis of the internal structure of the
component.
5.179 structural testing: See
structural
test case design.
5.180 structured basis testing: A
test case
design technique in which
test cases are derived
from the code logic to achieve 100%
branch coverage.
5.181 structured walkthrough: See
walkthrough.
5.182 stub: A skeletal or special-purpose
implementation of a software module, used to develop or test a
component that calls or is otherwise dependent on it
. After [IEEE].
5.183 subpath: A sequence of
executable statements within a
component.
5.184 symbolic evaluation: See
symbolic
execution.
5.185 symbolic execution:
A
static analysis technique that derives a
symbolic expression for program
paths.
5.186 syntax testing: A
test case design
technique for a
component or system in which
test case design is based upon the syntax of the
input.
5.187 system testing: The process of
testing an integrated system to verify that it meets
specified requirements
. [Hetzel]
5.188 technical requirements testing: See
non-functional requirements testing.
5.189 test automation: The use of software to control the execution of
tests, the comparison of
actual outcomes to
predicted outcomes, the setting up of test
preconditions, and other test control and test
reporting functions.
5.190 test case: A set of
inputs, execution
preconditions,
and
expected outcomes developed for a particular
objective, such as to exercise a particular program
path or
to verify compliance with a specific requirement
. After
[
IEEE,do178b]
5.191 test case design technique: A method
used to derive or select
test cases.
5.192 test case suite: A collection of one
or more
test cases for the software under test.
5.193 test comparator: A test tool that
compares the actual
outputs produced by the software under
test with the expected
outputs for that
test case.
5.194 test completion criterion: A
criterion for determining when planned
testing is
complete, defined in terms of a
test measurement
technique.
5.195 test coverage: See
coverage.
5.196 test driver: A program or test tool used
to execute software against a
test case suite.
5.197 test environment: A description of the
hardware and software environment in which the tests will be run, and any other
software with which the software under test interacts when under test including
stubs and
test drivers.
5.198 test execution: The processing of a
test case suite by the software under test, producing
an
outcome.
5.199 test execution technique: The method used to perform the actual
test execution, e.g. manual,
capture/playback tool, etc.
5.200 test generator: A program that generates
test cases in accordance to a specified strategy or
heuristic
. After [Beizer].
5.201 test harness: A
testing tool that comprises a
test
driver and a
test comparator.
5.202 test measurement technique: A method
used to measure
test coverage items.
5.203 test outcome: See
outcome.
5.204 test plan: A record of the test planning process detailing the
degree of tester
indedendence, the
test environment, the
test case
design techniques and
test measurement techniques
to be used, and the rationale for their choice.
5.205 test procedure: A document providing
detailed instructions for the execution of one or more
test
cases.
5.206 test records: For each test, an unambiguous record of the
identities and versions of the
component under test,
the
test specification, and
actual outcome.
5.207 test script: Commonly used to refer to the automated
test procedure used with a
test
harness.
5.208 test specification: For each
test case, the
coverage item,
the initial state of the software under test, the
input,
and the
predicted outcome.
5.209 test target: A set of
test completion
criteria.
5.210 testing: The process of exercising
software to verify that it satisfies specified requirements and to detect
errors
. After [
do178b]
5.211 thread testing: A variation of
top-down
testing where the progressive
integration of
components follows the implementation of subsets of the
requirements, as opposed to the
integration of
components by successively lower levels.
5.212 top-down testing: An approach to
integration testing where the
component at the top of the
component
hierarchy is tested first, with lower level
components being simulated by
stubs.
Tested
components are then used to test lower level
components
. The process is
repeated until the lowest level
components
have been tested.
5.213 unit testing: See
component testing.
5.214 usability testing: Testing the ease with
which users can learn and use a product.
5.215 validation: Determination of the c
orrectness of the products of software development with
respect to the user needs and requirements.
NOTE: The definition in BS 7925-1:1998 reads:
confirmation by examination and provision of objective evidence that the
particular requirements for a specific intended use have been fulfilled
5.216 verification: The process of evaluating
a system or
component to determine whether the products
of the given development phase satisfy the conditions imposed at the start of
that phase
. [IEEE]
NOTE: The definition in BS 7925-1:1998 reads:
confirmation by examination and provision of objective evidence that specified
requirements have been fulfilled
5.217 volume testing: Testing where the system
is subjected to large volumes of data.
5.218 walkthrough: A
review of requirements, designs or code characterized by the
author of the object under
review guiding the progression
of the
review.
5.219 white box testing: See
structural
test case design.
Annex A (informative)
Index of sources
The following non-normative sources were used in constructing this glossary.
[Abbott
] J Abbot,
Software Testing
Techniques,
NCC Publications, 1986.
[
Adrion] W R
Adrion, M A
Branstad and J C
Cherniabsky. Validation, Verification
and Testing of Computer Software, Computing Surveys, Vol 14, No 2, June 1982.
[BCS
] A Glossary of Computing Terms, The
British Computer Society, 7th edition, ISBN 0-273-03645-9.
[
Beizer] B
Beizer. Software Testing
Techniques, van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1990, ISBN
0-442-20672-0.
[Chow
] T S Chow,
Testing Software Design Modelled
by Finite-Sate Machines, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering,
Vol SE-4, No 3, May 1978.
[DO-178B
] Software Considerations in Airborne
Systems and Equipment Certification. Issued in the
USA by the
Requirements and Technical Concepts for Aviation (document RTCA SC167/DO-178B) and in
Europe
by the European Organization for Civil Aviation Electronics (EUROCAE document ED-12B), December 1992.
[Fenton
] N E
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\& Hall, 1991.
[Graham
] D Graham and T Gilb,
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[Hetzel
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Annex B (informative)
Document Details
B. 1 Method of commenting on this draft
Comments are invited on this draft so that the glossary can be improved to
satisfy the requirements of an ISO standard.
When making a comment, be sure to include the following information:
Your name and address;
The version number of the glossary (currently 6.2);
Exact part of the glossary;
Supporting information, such as the reason for a proposed
change, or the reference to the use of a term.
You can submit comments in a variety of ways, which in order of preference
are as follows:
- By E-mail to reids@rmcs.cranfield.ac.uk;
- By post to S C Reid, SEAS/CISE,
Cranfield
University, RMCS, Shrivenham, Swindon
Wilts SN6 8LA,
UK;
By FAX to +44 (0) 1793 783192, marked for the
attention of Stuart Reid.
B. 2 Status
Working draft for the BCS Specialist Interest Group in
Software Testing.
Web Application Exploits and Defenses
